The shape of the period

Period 1 ended with Jamestown barely alive in a swamp. Period 2 (1607 to 1754) is the story of what grew from it: thirteen distinct English colonies, each shaped by who founded it, why, and where. By 1754 they hold over a million people, run their own assemblies, trade across the whole Atlantic, and have built an economy partly on enslaved labor. The period ends when the French and Indian War begins, because that war will change everything about the colonies’ relationship with Britain.

Your test is built on six class statements. Keep them visible the whole way through:

Where it all happened

Drag to spin. The glowing arcs are the Atlantic in motion: settlement streams flowing west, and the three-cornered trade that tied four continents into one economy. Every arc on this globe is a test question somewhere below.

White arcs: settlers heading west. Teal: colonial raw materials (tobacco, rice, lumber) to Britain. Light red: British manufactured goods to Africa. Deep red: the Middle Passage. Gold: the sugar-molasses-rum loop through New England.

Master timeline, 1607 to 1754

Scrub through the whole unit once now, then come back after each section and watch the story assemble itself.

Learning objectives

By the end of this guide you will be able to:

• Compare the motivations, methods, regions, and character of Spanish, French, Dutch, and British colonization, and name what all four shared.
• Contrast the Chesapeake and New England colonies across social structure, political development, religion, economics, settlement, and geography.
• Describe the development of all three colonial regions (New England, Middle, Southern) and place all thirteen colonies on a map.
• Diagram the triangular trade and explain how Britain regulated colonial commerce (Navigation Acts, mercantilism, enumerated goods) and how colonists responded.
• Track British actions toward Native Americans and the four main native reactions, with King Philip’s War and Bacon’s Rebellion as your evidence.
• Explain the shift from indentured servitude to race-based slavery: the types of labor, the reasons for change (especially Bacon’s Rebellion), and the impact on the laborers themselves.
• Describe how immigration (English, Scots-Irish, German, African) shaped colonial society.
• Explain the causes and impact of the Great Awakening and the influence of the Enlightenment on colonial politics.

TL;DR

Four European powers ran four different colonial models: Spain conquered and converted (missions, encomienda, the Southwest and Florida), France traded and allied (furs, missionaries, the Great Lakes and Mississippi), the Dutch built a commercial port (New Amsterdam, patroons, tolerance for profit), and the British planted permanent settler colonies of families and farms along the Atlantic. Within British America, the Chesapeake (tobacco, plantations, House of Burgesses, unhealthy and male-heavy) and New England (Puritan towns, family farms, town meetings, healthy and stable) grew into opposites, with the diverse, grain-growing Middle colonies in between. The whole coast plugged into a transatlantic economy: raw materials east, manufactured goods and enslaved people west, all regulated by Navigation Acts under the theory of mercantilism, loosely enforced (salutary neglect) and widely smuggled around. Relations with Native Americans ran from trade to catastrophe: King Philip’s War (1675-76) broke native power in New England, and Bacon’s Rebellion (1676) pushed planters to swap indentured servants for enslaved Africans, locked in by race-based slave codes. Meanwhile immigration (Scots-Irish, Germans, forced African migration) diversified the colonies, the Great Awakening (Edwards, Whitefield) gave them their first shared emotional experience and a habit of questioning authority, and the Enlightenment (Locke’s natural rights, the social contract) gave their assemblies a political vocabulary they would use in Unit 3.

Glossary

Every one of these can appear on your test. Hover each card, then hit the flashcards at the end until they are automatic.

Joint-stock company A business that pools money from many investors who share profit and risk. The Virginia Company funded Jamestown this way: colonization as a startup, not a royal project. House of Burgesses (1619) Virginia’s elected lawmaking body, the first representative assembly in English America. Proof that self-government arrived with the first generation. Headright system Fifty acres of land granted for each person whose passage to Virginia you paid. It rewarded importing laborers and built up large landholders. Indentured servant A worker, usually a young English man or woman, who signed away four to seven years of labor to repay the cost of passage to America. The Chesapeake’s main labor source before slavery. Mayflower Compact (1620) The Pilgrims’ shipboard agreement to form a government and obey laws made by majority rule. A foundational document of self-government by consent. Puritans vs Separatists Puritans wanted to purify the Church of England from within; Separatists (the Plymouth Pilgrims) gave up and left it entirely. Both were Calvinists; the difference is whether they stayed in the church. City upon a hill John Winthrop’s 1630 image for Massachusetts Bay: a model Christian community the whole world would watch. The mission statement of the Puritan colonies. Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (1639) The first written constitution in America, drafted by Thomas Hooker’s Connecticut settlers. Government by written fundamental law starts here. Act of Toleration (1649) Maryland’s law protecting all Christians’ worship (while prescribing death for non-Christians who denied Jesus). Passed to protect the Catholic minority the colony was founded for. Patroon system Dutch land-grant system in the Hudson Valley: huge estates for anyone who brought fifty settlers. New Netherland’s aristocratic streak. Holy Experiment William Penn’s plan for Pennsylvania: religious freedom, no established church, fair treatment of natives, and cheap land. It made Pennsylvania the fastest-growing and most diverse colony. Mercantilism The theory that colonies exist to enrich the mother country: supply raw materials, buy finished goods, and keep gold inside the empire. The logic behind every trade law Britain passed. Navigation Acts (1651-1673) Parliament’s trade rules: colonial trade must use British ships, certain enumerated goods may be sold only to Britain, and imports must pass through British ports. Loosely enforced, widely resented, routinely smuggled around. Enumerated goods The listed products (tobacco first among them) that colonists could legally ship only to Britain, whatever better prices other buyers offered. Triangular trade The three-cornered Atlantic circuit: colonial raw materials to Europe, European manufactured goods to Africa, enslaved Africans to the Americas. In New England’s version: molasses in, rum out, people in chains across the middle. Middle Passage The horrific ocean crossing of enslaved Africans packed into slave ships. Mortality commonly ran 10 to 20 percent. The human center of the triangular trade. Salutary neglect Britain’s long habit of not enforcing its own trade laws. Colonists grew used to running their own affairs, which made later enforcement (Unit 3) feel like tyranny. King Philip's War (1675-76) Metacom’s alliance of New England tribes against the settlers. Per capita the deadliest war in American history; it ended organized native resistance in New England. Bacon's Rebellion (1676) Frontier farmers and freed servants under Nathaniel Bacon, furious over native raids and Governor Berkeley’s inaction, burned Jamestown. It scared planters away from indentured labor and toward enslaved Africans. Slave codes Colonial laws that made slavery permanent, hereditary through the mother, and racial. They converted a labor system into a caste system. Stono Rebellion (1739) The largest slave uprising of the colonial period, near the Stono River in South Carolina. It was crushed, and South Carolina answered with a far harsher slave code. Scots-Irish Presbyterian migrants from northern Ireland who settled the frontier backcountry, from Pennsylvania down the Appalachian valleys. Tough, land-hungry, and suspicious of governments. Great Awakening (1730s-40s) The wave of emotional religious revivals led by Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield. New denominations, new colleges, a habit of challenging established authority, and the first experience shared by all thirteen colonies. New Lights vs Old Lights Revival supporters (New Lights) against defenders of the traditional established churches (Old Lights). The split birthed new Baptist and Presbyterian congregations and new colleges to train each side’s ministers. Enlightenment The 17th-18th century movement applying reason to government and society. Locke’s natural rights and social contract gave colonists the argument that government exists by consent, to protect life, liberty, and property. Zenger case (1735) New York printer John Peter Zenger, tried for libeling the governor, acquitted because what he printed was true. The colonial landmark for freedom of the press.

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Section 1 · Four Empires, Four Blueprints

1.1 The similarities first

Your class statement asks for similarities AND differences. Lock in the four shared motives, then learn each power’s twist.

1.2 The four blueprints

It is 1650 and you must join one empire's American venture. Which blueprint would you actually pick?

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1.3 Which empire am I?

Read the clue, answer yes or no, and let the key classify the colonizer. The exam frames this exact skill as stimulus questions: traits first, names second.

K

Identify the colonial power from its traits

Click to answer. Each answer narrows the identification.

Step 1 Start over

Section 1 self-quiz

Q

Four empires

0 of 6 answered

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1. 01

   Which motivation was shared by ALL FOUR colonizing powers?

   A Establishing havens for persecuted religious dissenters B The desire for economic gain and expansion of empire C Converting Native Americans through mission systems D Finding and controlling a Northwest Passage to Asia
   Why: Your class statement lists the shared motives: economic gain, expansion of empire, religious motivations, and exploration. Havens for dissenters were mostly a British twist; missions were mostly Spanish and French.
2. 02

   The encomienda system, conquistadors, and forced conversion are the signature methods of

   A Spanish colonization B French colonization C Dutch colonization D British colonization
   Why: Spain's model: military conquest, missions, and extraction of native labor and wealth, centered in the Southwest and Florida.
3. 03

   French colonization produced comparatively good relations with Native Americans mainly because the French

   A signed a permanent treaty of alliance with every nation they met B refused on religious principle to carry firearms into the interior C needed native partners for the fur trade and settled in small numbers D purchased all the land they occupied at prices natives proposed
   Why: Fur-trade partnerships plus tiny settlements meant the French threatened native land far less than British farms did. Self-interest, not saintliness.
4. 04

   The Dutch West India Company, the patroon system, and a famously diverse port describe

   A New France B New Spain C New England D New Netherland
   Why: New Amsterdam and the Hudson Valley: a commercial venture run for profit, with huge patroon estates and every language of Europe on its docks. England took it bloodlessly in 1664.
5. 05

   British colonization differed from the other three powers most fundamentally in its

   A complete lack of interest in converting Native Americans B mass migration of families building permanent farm settlements C exclusive reliance on royal funding for every new colony D decision to colonize only islands rather than the mainland
   Why: Joint-stock companies, charters, and proprietors moved whole families across the Atlantic to farm and stay. Settlement at scale is the British difference, and the reason English America outgrew everyone.
6. 06

   Which pairing of power and region is correct?

   A France: the Southwest and Florida B Spain: the Hudson River Valley C Britain: the Great Lakes and Mississippi Valley D The Dutch: New Amsterdam and the Hudson Valley
   Why: Spain took the Southwest and Florida, France the Great Lakes, Canada, and the Mississippi, the Dutch the Hudson, and Britain the Atlantic coast from Georgia to Maine.

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Section 2 · Two Englands, Then Three Regions

2.1 Jamestown: the near-death startup

The Chesapeake begins with a business plan. Click through how it almost failed and what actually saved it.

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2.2 New England: colonies of conscience

The Chesapeake was founded for profit. New England was founded by religious dissenters building godly communities, and every difference between the regions flows from that.

2.3 The head-to-head table

Your class statement names six lenses. Here they are, side by side. If you master one comparison in this unit, make it this one.

2.4 Zoom out: the three regions

By 1733 there are thirteen colonies, and the exam sorts them into three regions. The wheel below uses your class map colors: purple New England, orange Middle, teal Southern. Click a region to zoom.

The three-region cards

Each card follows your class statement’s six lenses. The Southern card includes the Chesapeake.

Pin the colonies on the map

The same map as your class worksheet. Drop each colony where it belongs; chips are tinted by region. For the full lab (settlements, rivers, and rival empires), open the 13 Colonies Map Lab after this guide.

📍

Place the 13 colonies

Test yourself: no hints until you check. Purple New England, orange Middle, teal Southern.

Learn Test

⛶ Full screen

New England Middle Southern

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Section 2 self-quiz

Q

Chesapeake, New England, and the three regions

0 of 8 answered

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1. 01

   Jamestown was financed by the Virginia Company, which means the colony began as

   A a royal project funded directly by the king's own treasury B a religious refuge for persecuted English congregations C a profit-seeking venture owned by joint-stock investors D a military outpost meant to guard against Spanish Florida
   Why: A joint-stock company pooled investor money and expected returns. Profit-hunger explains the early gold obsession, the starving time, and the pivot to tobacco.
2. 02

   What happened in Virginia in 1619 that makes the year a double landmark?

   A The starving time ended and John Smith took command of the fort B The House of Burgesses met and the first enslaved Africans arrived C Tobacco was first planted and the Powhatan wars finally concluded D The Mayflower Compact was signed and Plymouth colony was founded
   Why: The first representative assembly in English America and the beginning of African slavery in the English colonies, in the same summer. The exam loves the irony; so do essay graders.
3. 03

   The Pilgrims of Plymouth differed from the Puritans of Massachusetts Bay because the Pilgrims

   A separated entirely from the Church of England rather than purifying it B came to America primarily to grow tobacco for the English market C practiced full religious toleration for every faith in their colony D were sponsored and financed directly by the English monarchy
   Why: Separatists left the church; Puritans stayed to purify it from within. Both were Calvinists; neither practiced broad toleration.
4. 04

   The Mayflower Compact (1620) is historically significant as an early example of

   A a formal declaration of independence from English rule B a written constitution creating three branches of government C a colonial alliance for defense against native attacks D self-government created by the consent of the governed
   Why: Landing outside any charter's jurisdiction, the Pilgrims agreed among themselves to form a government and obey majority-made laws. Consent is the tested concept.
5. 05

   Roger Williams's Rhode Island stood out among the colonies for its

   A complete religious liberty and separation of church and state B strict enforcement of Puritan orthodoxy in every single town C economy built entirely on rice and indigo plantation exports D royal charter forbidding any form of representative assembly
   Why: Banished from Massachusetts for his views, Williams built the colony Massachusetts refused to be: liberty of conscience for all, church and state kept separate.
6. 06

   Which feature belongs to the MIDDLE colonies?

   A Compact towns organized around Puritan congregations B A wheat-exporting 'breadbasket' economy and religious pluralism C Scattered tobacco plantations ruled by a small planter elite D An economy dominated by cod fishing and whaling fleets
   Why: Fertile soil, grain exports, Philadelphia and New York, and the most diverse, tolerant population in the colonies: Quakers, Germans, Dutch, Scots-Irish, and more.
7. 07

   Life in the seventeenth-century Chesapeake differed from New England in that Chesapeake settlers

   A lived longer thanks to the region's warm and mild climate B organized their society around townships and village greens C died young in a male-heavy society of scattered plantations D migrated almost entirely in complete multi-generation families
   Why: Disease-ridden lowlands, a 6:1 male-to-female ratio, and river-strung plantations vs New England's healthy, family-based, compact towns. Demography is a favorite stimulus topic.
8. 08

   Harvard College (1636) and New England's town school laws reflect the Puritan belief that

   A every believer must be able to read scripture and ministers must be trained B colonial colleges should train lawyers for the imperial civil service C education should be reserved for the sons of the landed gentry D schooling was a private family matter beyond government concern
   Why: Literacy served salvation: reading the Bible required schools, and congregations required educated ministers. Education is a New England signature the exam checks often.

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Section 3 · The Atlantic Money Machine

3.1 The three routes

Your class statement names three routes. Trace each ribbon below from source to destination; the width shows roughly how much the empire cared about it.

3.2 Mercantilism: the rules of the game

Mercantilism is the theory that colonies exist to benefit the mother country. Wealth is measured in gold and silver, so the empire should export more than it imports, and colonies should feed the machine: sell Britain cheap raw materials, buy Britain’s expensive finished goods, and trade with nobody else. Parliament wrote that theory into law as the Navigation Acts (1651-1673), and the whole system ran downhill from London.

Section 3 self-quiz

Q

Trade and regulation

0 of 6 answered

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1. 01

   Under mercantilist theory, the American colonies existed primarily to

   A supply raw materials to Britain and buy British manufactured goods B develop their own industries to compete in European markets C serve as naval bases guarding the routes to the Asian trade D provide land grants rewarding veterans of Britain's many wars
   Why: Colonies feed the mother country cheap raw materials and consume its finished goods, keeping gold inside the empire. Every trade law in this unit applies that theory.
2. 02

   The Navigation Acts required that

   A all colonial assemblies be dissolved and replaced by royal governors B colonial trade travel in British ships and enumerated goods go only to Britain C every colony contribute soldiers and taxes for imperial defense D colonists purchase stamps for all legal documents and newspapers
   Why: Three rules: British (or colonial) ships, enumerated goods like tobacco sold only to Britain, and European imports routed through British ports. Stamps and dissolved assemblies belong to Unit 3.
3. 03

   Which was a genuine colonial BENEFIT of the Navigation Acts?

   A Free access to sell tobacco in any European market at will B Exemption from all taxation by the Parliament in London C A protected market plus a boom in colonial shipbuilding D Direct representation in the British House of Commons
   Why: Colonial ships counted as British ships, so New England shipyards thrived, and enumerated crops had a guaranteed buyer with naval protection. The system had winners as well as resenters.
4. 04

   The main colonial response to trade regulations they disliked was

   A petitioning Parliament for seats in the House of Commons B boycotting all British manufactured goods for a full decade C declaring the Navigation Acts void in their colonial courts D smuggling, especially molasses from the French West Indies
   Why: The Molasses Act (1733) set a tax colonists simply evaded. Smuggling plus Britain's weak enforcement (salutary neglect) let both sides avoid a showdown, for a while.
5. 05

   Salutary neglect mattered for later American history mainly because it

   A let colonists grow accustomed to managing their own affairs B convinced Parliament to repeal every colonial trade regulation C transferred control of colonial trade to the Dutch companies D prevented the colonies from ever developing coastal commerce
   Why: Decades of loose enforcement built habits of self-government and self-taxation. When enforcement tightened after 1763, colonists read it as an attack on established rights.
6. 06

   In the New England version of the triangular trade, the three legs carried

   A furs to France, wine to Africa, and servants to the Caribbean B molasses to New England, rum to Africa, enslaved people to the Caribbean C tobacco to Britain, tea to Africa, and silver back to the colonies D wheat to the Caribbean, sugar to Britain, cloth back to Boston
   Why: Caribbean molasses became New England rum, rum bought enslaved Africans, and the Middle Passage carried them to the sugar islands. Route 3 is always the human cargo.

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Section 4 · Natives and Newcomers

4.1 The pattern, on both sides

Your class statement is a two-column answer. Learn it as two sets of four.

4.2 Two theaters, one pattern

Run the lanes side by side: early cooperation, rising land pressure, then a devastating war in each region within a single year of each other.

4.3 Spotlight: King Philip’s War, 1675-76

My father Massasoit fed these people when they starved. Two generations later they take our land, put our people on trial in their courts, and tell us how to worship. If we do not act as one people now, there will be nothing left to defend.

Metacom built an alliance of Wampanoags, Narragansetts, and others and struck across New England. Over a thousand colonists died and a dozen towns burned. But colonial forces and their Mohawk allies wore the alliance down; Metacom was killed in 1676.

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Section 5 · From Servants to Slavery

5.1 The four kinds of labor

5.2 The switch, charted

Watch the Chesapeake workforce transform. Enslaved Africans were a tiny share of Virginia’s population in 1650; by 1750 they were more than two of every five people in the colony.

Enslaved share of Virginia’s population, 1650 to 1750 (percent, historian estimates)

The inflection point sits in the 1680s, right after one event. Your class statement names it directly: Bacon’s Rebellion.

5.3 Bacon’s Rebellion, the mini-cartoon

The single most important cause-and-effect chain in Unit 2. Watch it play out.

Bacon's Rebellion, 1676

⏸ Pause ↺ Restart

The setup: freed indentured servants pour onto Virginia's frontier, the only place land is cheap. It is also where native nations still live.

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1 Scene 1 of 5

2 Scene 2 of 5

3 Scene 3 of 5

4 Scene 4 of 5

5 Scene 5 of 5

5.4 Why the switch? All the reasons

Bacon’s Rebellion is the headline cause, but your class statement asks for the full set. Click through.

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5.5 Read the rebellion like a grader

Bacon justified the rising in his Declaration of the People (1676). Hover each highlight for what a top scorer notices.

Class grievance The target: Berkeley's circle The core accusation Frontier point of view

For having, upon specious pretences of public works, raised great unjust taxes upon the commonalty for the advancement of private favorites and other sinister ends... For having protected, favored, and emboldened the Indians against His Majesties loyal subjects, never contriving, requiring, or appointing any due or proper means of satisfaction for their many invasions, robberies, and murders committed upon us.

5.6 You are Governor Berkeley

It is the spring of 1676. Play the crisis, then read what actually happened.

Choose your path

Jamestown, spring 1676

You are Sir William Berkeley, royal governor of Virginia. Frontier settlers, many of them freed servants who cannot afford tidewater land, are skirmishing with native nations. A young, wealthy, charismatic newcomer named Nathaniel Bacon demands a commission to lead volunteers against the natives, ALL natives, allied or not. The fur trade, the peace treaties, and the colony's order are in your hands.

Outcome

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Sections 4 + 5 self-quiz

Q

Natives, labor, and the great switch

0 of 8 answered

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1. 01

   Which sequence correctly matches British actions with native reactions?

   A Land seizure met by armed resistance; missionary pressure met by cultural preservation B Trade offers met by total isolation; treaty offers met by immediate surrender everywhere C Missionary efforts met by mass conversion; land purchases met by permanent alliances D Military conquest met by disbanding tribes; fur trading met by abandoning all hunting
   Why: Your class statement pairs the four actions (land, trade, missions, war) against the four reactions (adaptation, resistance, diplomacy, cultural preservation). Natives were never passive and never uniform.
2. 02

   King Philip's War (1675-76) is significant because it

   A established the French as the dominant power across New England B ended organized Native American resistance in the New England colonies C convinced Parliament to prohibit any settlement west of the Appalachians D created a permanent confederation between colonists and the Wampanoag
   Why: Metacom's alliance devastated the region (per capita the deadliest war in American history) but its defeat broke native power in New England for good.
3. 03

   Roughly three quarters of seventeenth-century Chesapeake immigrants arrived as

   A enslaved Africans B indentured servants C convicted criminals D paying passengers
   Why: The indenture: four to seven years of labor for the price of passage. Slavery did not dominate Chesapeake labor until after Bacon's Rebellion.
4. 04

   Bacon's Rebellion revealed which tension in Virginia society?

   A Between Anglican clergy and the House of Burgesses over tithes B Between New England merchants and Chesapeake tobacco planters C Between backcountry former servants and the tidewater planter elite D Between royal governors and Parliament over the Navigation Acts
   Why: Landless freed servants on the frontier vs Berkeley's wealthy circle in the tidewater. Class conflict plus frontier native policy is the double engine of 1676.
5. 05

   The most important long-term consequence of Bacon's Rebellion was

   A Virginia's planters shifting from indentured servants to enslaved Africans B the permanent abolition of the House of Burgesses by royal decree C an immediate ban on any further settlement of Virginia's frontier D the transfer of Virginia from company ownership to Dutch control
   Why: Armed, landless ex-servants had nearly toppled the colony. Enslaved laborers never became free, armed claimants to land, which is exactly why the elite made the switch.
6. 06

   Colonial slave codes established that enslavement was

   A limited to a fixed term of no more than fourteen years of service B lifelong, racially defined, and inherited through the mother C forbidden in every colony north of the Mason-Dixon line D convertible to freedom automatically upon Christian baptism
   Why: The codes converted slavery into a hereditary racial caste and explicitly closed the baptism loophole. Slavery was legal in all thirteen colonies in this period.
7. 07

   For the enslaved, the impact of the labor system included

   A guaranteed freedom dues of land and tools after seven years' work B wages that generally exceeded what free workers earned in Europe C brutal conditions, family separation, and suppression of culture D legal protection of marriages and families from sale or division
   Why: Your class statement's exact phrasing. Contrast with servants (eventual freedom, some prosperity) and free workers (better opportunities than Europe). Enslaved people answered with resistance, from work slowdowns to the Stono Rebellion (1739).
8. 08

   The Stono Rebellion of 1739 led South Carolina to

   A abolish the plantation system throughout the entire low country B grant gradual emancipation to all enslaved people born after 1740 C transfer its rice economy to a workforce of indentured servants D enact an even harsher and more restrictive slave code
   Why: The largest slave uprising of the colonial era was crushed, and the colony responded with the Negro Act of 1740: tighter control, not reform. Resistance and repression escalated together.

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Section 6 · A New People, New Ideas

6.1 Who the colonists became

The stream below shows the changing makeup of the colonial population from 1660 (left edge) to 1750 (right edge). Watch the English share shrink as Scots-Irish, German, and forced African migration reshape the colonies.

Colonial population share by origin group, 1660 → 1750 (each band is a group; rows run in 15-year steps)

6.2 The Great Awakening, 1730s-40s

By 1730 the founders’ fire had cooled: church services were formal, membership was slipping, and prosperity was crowding out piety. Then two preachers lit a match.

The God that holds you over the pit of hell, much as one holds a spider or some loathsome insect over the fire, abhors you… yet it is nothing but his hand that holds you from falling every moment.

I preach in fields because the churches cannot hold the crowds. Farmhands and governors weep side by side. It matters nothing what parish you were born in: you must be born again.

6.3 The Enlightenment goes to America

The Great Awakening moved hearts; the Enlightenment armed minds. European thinkers applied reason to government, and colonial elites (none more than Benjamin Franklin) read every word.

flowchart TB
  E[The Enlightenment: reason over tradition]
  L["Natural rights: life, liberty, property (John Locke)"]
  S[Social contract: government by consent of the governed]
  P[Separation of powers: checks and balances]
  R[Reason and science over inherited authority]
  A[Colonial assemblies grow more powerful and independent]
  C[Written constitutions and fundamental laws]
  T[Ideas of religious tolerance and church-state separation]
  Q[Questioning of British authority itself]
  D[Foundation for later American government]
  E --> L
  E --> S
  E --> P
  E --> R
  L --> Q
  S --> A
  P --> C
  R --> T
  A --> D
  C --> D
  T --> D
  Q --> D

Section 6 self-quiz

Q

Immigration, Awakening, Enlightenment

0 of 6 answered

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1. 01

   The Scots-Irish immigrants of the early 1700s primarily settled

   A the frontier backcountry along the Appalachian valleys B the port cities of Boston, Newport, and coastal Salem C the tidewater tobacco plantations of eastern Virginia D the sugar-producing islands of the British Caribbean
   Why: Presbyterian, land-hungry, and suspicious of authority, they pushed to the frontier from Pennsylvania southward, driving the westward expansion your class statement lists.
2. 02

   German immigrants in Pennsylvania were notable for

   A rapidly abandoning their language to blend into English culture B maintaining distinct communities with their own churches and farms C dominating the Atlantic shipping trade out of Philadelphia D founding the colonies' first newspapers in the English language
   Why: The 'Pennsylvania Dutch' (Deutsch) kept their language, Lutheran and sectarian churches, and distinct farming communities: your statement's exact phrase.
3. 03

   Which list gives the impacts of immigration named in your class statement?

   A Falling wages, religious uniformity, and coastal crowding B Rising imports, royal centralization, and fewer denominations C Cultural diversity, economic growth, religious pluralism, westward expansion D Urban decline, established churches, and eastern consolidation
   Why: D-E-R-W: Diversity (especially in the Middle colonies), Economic growth, Religious pluralism, and Westward push into the frontier.
4. 04

   A major cause of the Great Awakening was

   A Parliament's decision to tax the established colonial churches B the arrival of Catholic missionaries across the Ohio Valley C a royal decree mandating emotional revivals in every parish D the formal, unemotional worship of the established churches
   Why: Religious decline, growing wealth and materialism, and rationalist Enlightenment religion left people hungry for emotional, personal faith. Edwards and Whitefield supplied it.
5. 05

   Which was an effect of the Great Awakening?

   A New denominations grew and new colleges were founded B Colonial churches unified into one American denomination C Religious enthusiasm disappeared from public life for decades D The Anglican Church was established in all thirteen colonies
   Why: Baptists and Methodists surged, congregations split into New Lights and Old Lights, and Princeton, Brown, Rutgers, and Dartmouth were founded to train ministers. Plus the two big intangibles: challenged authority and shared colonial experience.
6. 06

   John Locke's ideas influenced colonial politics by teaching that

   A monarchs rule by divine right and may never be resisted B government rests on consent and exists to protect natural rights C colonies should be governed directly by the British military D voting should be limited to members of established churches
   Why: Natural rights (life, liberty, property) and the social contract: government by consent of the governed. Colonial assemblies, constitutions, and eventually the Declaration all draw on this.

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The primary source reader

Flip through the six documents your test is most likely to quote. Each page ends with the reason it gets tested.

Period 2 in six documents

Skip to flat reading

Period 2 Sources

Six documents your test loves

1 · The Mayflower Compact, 1620

'We... covenant and combine ourselves together into a civil body politic... and by virtue hereof to enact, constitute and frame such just and equal laws... as shall be thought most meet and convenient for the general good of the Colony.'

Why it gets tested: self-government created by mutual consent, before any government existed to grant it. Pairs with the House of Burgesses (1619) as the twin roots of American self-rule.

1

2 · John Winthrop, A Model of Christian Charity, 1630

'We must consider that we shall be as a city upon a hill. The eyes of all people are upon us.'

Why it gets tested: the Puritan mission statement: Massachusetts as a model community under covenant with God. Also the root of a phrase American politicians have quoted ever since.

2

3 · Maryland Act of Toleration, 1649

'No person... professing to believe in Jesus Christ, shall from henceforth be any ways troubled, molested or discountenanced for... his or her religion nor in the free exercise thereof.'

Why it gets tested: an early legal protection of (Christian-only) religious freedom, passed to shield Maryland's Catholic minority. Know both the milestone and the limit.

3

4 · Nathaniel Bacon, Declaration of the People, 1676

'For having, upon specious pretences of public works, raised great unjust taxes upon the commonalty for the advancement of private favorites...'

Why it gets tested: class conflict inside colonial society: frontier ex-servants vs the tidewater elite. The rebellion's aftermath, the shift toward enslaved labor, is the exam's favorite cause-and-effect chain in this unit.

4

5 · Olaudah Equiano on the Middle Passage, 1789

'The closeness of the place, and the heat of the climate... almost suffocated us... The shrieks of the women, and the groans of the dying, rendered the whole a scene of horror almost inconceivable.'

Why it gets tested: the human reality inside the triangular trade's third leg. Written later, but describing this period's system: check the date when classifying the source.

5

6 · Jonathan Edwards, Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God, 1741

'The God that holds you over the pit of hell, much as one holds a spider... abhors you, and is dreadfully provoked.'

Why it gets tested: the Great Awakening's emotional style in one sentence. Distinguish it from Enlightenment reasoning, and connect it to new denominations, new colleges, and challenged authority.

6

Page 1 of 6

1 · The Mayflower Compact, 1620

'We... covenant and combine ourselves together into a civil body politic... and by virtue hereof to enact, constitute and frame such just and equal laws... as shall be thought most meet and convenient for the general good of the Colony.'

Why it gets tested: self-government created by mutual consent, before any government existed to grant it. Pairs with the House of Burgesses (1619) as the twin roots of American self-rule.

Page 2 of 6

2 · John Winthrop, A Model of Christian Charity, 1630

'We must consider that we shall be as a city upon a hill. The eyes of all people are upon us.'

Why it gets tested: the Puritan mission statement: Massachusetts as a model community under covenant with God. Also the root of a phrase American politicians have quoted ever since.

Page 3 of 6

3 · Maryland Act of Toleration, 1649

'No person... professing to believe in Jesus Christ, shall from henceforth be any ways troubled, molested or discountenanced for... his or her religion nor in the free exercise thereof.'

Why it gets tested: an early legal protection of (Christian-only) religious freedom, passed to shield Maryland's Catholic minority. Know both the milestone and the limit.

Page 4 of 6

4 · Nathaniel Bacon, Declaration of the People, 1676

'For having, upon specious pretences of public works, raised great unjust taxes upon the commonalty for the advancement of private favorites...'

Why it gets tested: class conflict inside colonial society: frontier ex-servants vs the tidewater elite. The rebellion's aftermath, the shift toward enslaved labor, is the exam's favorite cause-and-effect chain in this unit.

Page 5 of 6

5 · Olaudah Equiano on the Middle Passage, 1789

'The closeness of the place, and the heat of the climate... almost suffocated us... The shrieks of the women, and the groans of the dying, rendered the whole a scene of horror almost inconceivable.'

Why it gets tested: the human reality inside the triangular trade's third leg. Written later, but describing this period's system: check the date when classifying the source.

Page 6 of 6

6 · Jonathan Edwards, Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God, 1741

'The God that holds you over the pit of hell, much as one holds a spider... abhors you, and is dreadfully provoked.'

Why it gets tested: the Great Awakening's emotional style in one sentence. Distinguish it from Enlightenment reasoning, and connect it to new denominations, new colleges, and challenged authority.

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Test-taking machine

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Practice: SAQ drills from your class statements

These mirror the study guide statements exactly. Write your answer in complete sentences, then open the model.

Q 2.2: Explain ONE similarity and ONE difference between British colonization and that of ONE other European power.

Similarity: every power (British, Spanish, French, Dutch) colonized for economic gain, empire, religion, and exploration. Difference (pick your pair): Britain planted permanent, family-based farming settlements along the Atlantic coast, while Spain relied on conquest, missions, and forced native labor in the Southwest and Florida; or while France built a thinly-populated fur-trade network of posts and native alliances along the Great Lakes and Mississippi; or while the Dutch ran a single diverse commercial port (New Amsterdam) through the Dutch West India Company.

Q 2.3: Explain ONE social, ONE political, and ONE economic difference between the Chesapeake and New England colonies.

Social: the Chesapeake was a male-heavy, short-lived society of scattered plantations built on servant (later enslaved) labor, while New England was settled by healthy, long-lived family units in compact towns. Political: Virginia developed the House of Burgesses under royal control dominated by planters, while New England ran on town meetings and compact-based self-government (Mayflower Compact, Fundamental Orders). Economic: the Chesapeake bet everything on the tobacco cash crop, while New England mixed subsistence farming with fishing, lumber, shipbuilding, and trade. (Geography drove all three: warm fertile river country vs rocky soil and good harbors.)

Q 2.4: Describe the triangular trade and explain how Britain tried to regulate colonial commerce.

The triangular trade moved raw materials (tobacco, rice, lumber, fish) from the colonies to Europe, manufactured goods (cloth, guns, tools) from Europe to Africa, and enslaved Africans across the Middle Passage to the Americas, with a New England variant running molasses to rum to enslaved people. Britain regulated it under mercantilism (colonies exist to benefit the mother country) through the Navigation Acts (1651-1673): trade in British ships, enumerated goods like tobacco sold only to Britain, imports routed through British ports. The impact your statement names: resentment and smuggling, tolerated for decades under salutary neglect.

Q 2.5: Identify TWO British actions toward Native Americans and TWO native reactions, with an example of each.

British actions: land acquisition by purchase, treaty, and seizure (the constant pressure behind every conflict); trade (furs for iron goods); missionary efforts (John Eliot’s praying towns); military conflict (Pequot War 1637, King Philip’s War 1675-76). Native reactions: adaptation (adopting European tools and guns); resistance and confederation (Metacom’s alliance, the Powhatan uprisings); diplomacy (allying with one European power against another); cultural preservation (maintaining language, religion, and traditions under pressure).

Q 2.6: Explain why the Chesapeake shifted from indentured servitude to African slavery, and the impact on the laborers.

Reasons: Bacon’s Rebellion (1676) showed the danger of a large class of armed, landless ex-servants; tobacco and rice demanded ever more labor while fewer English signed indentures; and racial ideology, written into slave codes, made African bondage permanent and hereditary. Impact: surviving indentured servants eventually gained freedom and sometimes modest prosperity; free workers found better opportunities than in Europe; enslaved people faced brutal conditions, family separation, and cultural suppression for life, and resisted through means from slowdowns to the Stono Rebellion (1739).

Q 2.7: Explain ONE cause and TWO effects of the Great Awakening, and ONE way the Enlightenment shaped colonial politics.

Cause (any one): formal, unemotional worship in established churches; rising wealth and materialism; rationalist Enlightenment religion leaving people hungry for emotional faith. Effects (any two): emotional revival and personal conversion; growth of Baptists and Methodists and the New Light/Old Light split; new colleges (Princeton, Brown, Rutgers, Dartmouth); challenges to established authority; the first shared intercolonial experience. Enlightenment: Locke’s natural rights and social contract taught that government rests on consent, strengthening colonial assemblies, inspiring written constitutions and religious tolerance, and providing the vocabulary for resistance to British authority in Unit 3.

The whole unit in one map

Match the colony to its founder and purpose

Colony to founding story 0 / 10 matched

Terms

CarolinasConnecticutNew YorkPennsylvaniaMarylandVirginiaMassachusetts BayPlymouthGeorgiaRhode Island

Definitions

The Calverts' refuge for Catholics, 1634Virginia Company joint-stock venture for profit, 1607Roger Williams: full religious liberty, 1636Proprietors' plantation colonies; rice and indigoSeparatist Pilgrims under the Mayflower Compact, 1620Winthrop's Puritan 'city upon a hill,' 1630Dutch New Netherland, seized by England in 1664Hooker's settlers and the Fundamental Orders, 1636-39Penn's Quaker Holy Experiment, 1681Oglethorpe's debtor haven and buffer vs Florida, 1733

Put the unit in order

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Mock unit test

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1. 01

   All four colonizing powers (Spain, France, the Netherlands, Britain) shared which motivation?

   A Desire for economic gain and expanded empire B Commitment to religious toleration for settlers C Reliance on family-based agricultural migration D Plans to grant natives full imperial citizenship
   Why: Economic gain, empire, religion, and exploration were common to all four. The methods are where they diverge.
2. 02

   Spanish colonization is best characterized by

   A trading posts and native alliances along inland rivers B conquest, missions, and extraction of native labor C a single diverse commercial port run by a company D compact towns of self-governing religious families
   Why: Conquistadors, missions, and the encomienda in the Southwest and Florida. The other three choices describe France, the Dutch, and New England.
3. 03

   France's colonial presence in North America was concentrated in

   A the Atlantic coast from Georgia to Maine B Florida and the desert Southwest C the Great Lakes, Canada, and the Mississippi Valley D the Hudson River Valley and Manhattan
   Why: Fur-trade country: the St. Lawrence, Great Lakes, and Mississippi, with tiny settlements and heavy reliance on native partners.
4. 04

   The Dutch colony of New Netherland was distinctive for its

   A strict Puritan religious orthodoxy in every town B plantation economy built on rice and indigo C refusal to engage in the Atlantic fur trade D commercial focus and unusually diverse population
   Why: A Dutch West India Company venture: profit first, tolerance as good business, patroon estates on the Hudson. England took it in 1664 and renamed it New York.
5. 05

   Jamestown's survival was ultimately secured by

   A the discovery of gold deposits along the James River B tobacco cultivation pioneered by John Rolfe C a defensive alliance with the Spanish in Florida D the immediate arrival of large Puritan families
   Why: Tobacco gave Virginia its cash crop and its endless appetite for land and labor. No gold was ever found; families and Puritans belong to New England's story.
6. 06

   Both the House of Burgesses (1619) and the Mayflower Compact (1620) illustrate

   A early colonial experiments in self-government B the complete independence of the colonies from England C Parliament's direct control over colonial lawmaking D the religious uniformity of the English colonies
   Why: An elected assembly in Virginia and government-by-consent in Plymouth: twin roots of American self-rule, both within the empire, neither independent.
7. 07

   The Puritans of Massachusetts Bay came to America primarily to

   A escape imprisonment for debts owed in England B grow staple crops for export to European markets C build a model religious community, a 'city upon a hill' D establish complete freedom of religion for all faiths
   Why: Winthrop's covenant community would purify the church by example. Toleration was not the goal: dissenters like Williams and Hutchinson were banished.
8. 08

   Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson are similar in that both

   A were banished from Massachusetts for challenging Puritan authority B founded proprietary colonies under royal land grants C led armed uprisings against the government of the colony D served as elected governors of the Massachusetts Bay colony
   Why: Williams (separation of church and state, fair native land dealings) and Hutchinson (antinomianism) both challenged the orthodoxy and were expelled; both landed in Rhode Island.
9. 09

   The Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (1639) is significant as

   A the first alliance between colonies for common defense B the first written constitution in the American colonies C the first law establishing religious freedom for Christians D the first royal charter granted to a New England colony
   Why: Hooker's settlers wrote out their frame of government: fundamental written law, a habit America never dropped.
10. 10

    A test question describes a colony of religious pluralism, wheat exports, and a great port city founded by Quakers. It is describing

    A Massachusetts B South Carolina C Pennsylvania D New Hampshire
    Why: Penn's Holy Experiment: tolerance, fair native dealings, cheap land, and Philadelphia. The Middle colonies' signature story.
11. 11

    The three legs of the classic triangular trade carried

    A silver to Asia, spices to Europe, and tea to the colonies B raw materials to Europe, goods to Africa, enslaved people to the Americas C furs to France, fish to Spain, and cloth to New England D rum to Britain, tobacco to Africa, and servants to Virginia
    Why: Route 1: colonial raw materials east. Route 2: manufactured goods to Africa. Route 3: the Middle Passage west. Your class statement's exact structure.
12. 12

    Under the Navigation Acts, enumerated goods such as tobacco

    A could be sold only to Britain regardless of better prices elsewhere B were exempt from all imperial taxes and shipping regulations C had to be manufactured into finished products in the colonies D could be traded freely with the French and Dutch West Indies
    Why: Enumerated goods went to Britain, period. Guaranteed market, but captive prices: one of the resentments your statement lists.
13. 13

    The overall purpose of Britain's mercantilist regulations was to

    A encourage colonial manufacturing to rival London's B ensure colonial trade enriched the mother country C reduce the flow of gold and silver into England D grant the colonies economic independence gradually
    Why: Colonies supply raw materials and buy finished goods; wealth stays in the empire. Colonial industry was discouraged, not encouraged.
14. 14

    Colonists most commonly responded to the Molasses Act of 1733 by

    A switching their distilleries from rum to whiskey B abandoning the Caribbean trade routes entirely C smuggling molasses from the French West Indies D paying the tax and petitioning for lower rates
    Why: Smuggling was the colonial answer, and Britain's shrug (salutary neglect) let it work, until enforcement returned in Unit 3.
15. 15

    John Eliot's 'praying towns' are an example of which British action toward natives?

    A military conquest of native territory B acquisition of land through purchase C missionary efforts to convert natives D trade in furs and manufactured goods
    Why: Praying towns gathered Christianized Algonquians into settlements. Your statement's four actions: land, trade, missions, and war.
16. 16

    King Philip's War and Bacon's Rebellion, both peaking in 1675-76, shared which underlying cause?

    A Parliament's new taxes on colonial land sales B the collapse of the transatlantic tobacco market C religious conflict between Anglicans and Puritans D settler hunger for land held by Native Americans
    Why: New England expansion triggered Metacom's war; Virginia frontier expansion triggered the crisis Berkeley refused to escalate and Bacon exploited. Land is the engine of both.
17. 17

    One native reaction to European pressure that your class statement highlights was

    A forming confederations to mount armed resistance B voluntarily relocating to the Caribbean colonies C adopting European religions without any resistance D abandoning all trade with European settlers
    Why: Alongside adaptation, diplomacy, and cultural preservation. Metacom's alliance and the Powhatan Confederacy are the go-to examples.
18. 18

    An indentured servant in the seventeenth-century Chesapeake typically

    A was legally enslaved for life along with any children B owned a small farm purchased before leaving England C served four to seven years in exchange for passage D earned wages equal to those of free skilled workers
    Why: Labor now for passage already spent, with freedom dues at the end for the survivors. About three quarters of Chesapeake immigrants came this way.
19. 19

    Planters shifted from indentured servants to enslaved Africans partly because Bacon's Rebellion showed that

    A a large class of armed, landless ex-servants was dangerous B indentured servants could not learn tobacco cultivation C enslaved workers would never resist their enslavement D Parliament had outlawed the further import of servants
    Why: The rebellion's nightmare was thousands of freed servants with guns and grievances. Enslaved labor never became free claimants to land. (Enslaved people resisted constantly: Stono, 1739.)
20. 20

    Colonial slave codes made slavery

    A a temporary status ending after fourteen years B hereditary, lifelong, and defined by race C illegal in the New England and Middle colonies D convertible to indenture through baptism
    Why: Status passed through the mother, lasted for life, and baptism changed nothing. Slavery was legal in all thirteen colonies during this period.
21. 21

    The Scots-Irish contribution to colonial development most associated with your class statement is

    A dominating the coastal shipping industry B establishing the colonies' first universities C pushing settlement into frontier regions D founding utopian religious communities
    Why: Frontier settlement down the Appalachian backcountry, bringing Presbyterianism and chronic friction with natives and eastern governments.
22. 22

    The Great Awakening contributed to the coming Revolution most directly by

    A training colonial militias in New England towns B uniting the colonies under one established church C ending British enforcement of the Navigation Acts D teaching ordinary colonists to challenge established authority
    Why: If congregations could judge and reject ministers, subjects could judge and reject governors. Plus the first shared intercolonial experience: unity practice.
23. 23

    Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield are both associated with

    A emotional revival preaching of the Great Awakening B the rationalist deism of the colonial Enlightenment C the founding of the first Anglican churches in America D colonial resistance to the Navigation Act trade rules
    Why: Edwards's hellfire imagery and Whitefield's field-preaching tours made religion personal, emotional, and intercolonial.
24. 24

    Locke's social contract theory holds that government derives its authority from

    A the divine right of hereditary monarchs B the consent of the governed C the accumulated wisdom of tradition D the military power of the state
    Why: Government exists by agreement to protect natural rights (life, liberty, property), and forfeits legitimacy when it fails. Colonial assemblies were listening; Unit 3 applies it.
25. 25

    The Zenger case of 1735 advanced the colonial principle that

    A juries could be waived in trials for seditious libel B governors were immune from criticism in the press C true statements about officials could not be punished as libel D newspapers required a royal license before publishing
    Why: Zenger's jury acquitted him because what he printed about Governor Cosby was true. A landmark for freedom of the press, and for juries thinking independently.

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Front

Shared motives of all four colonial powers

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Economic gain, expansion of empire, religious motivations, and exploration of new territories.

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Mnemonics

Common pitfalls

They came to practice their own faith purely, and banished dissenters like Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson. Genuine religious liberty in this period lives in Rhode Island (full liberty) and, in limited Christian form, Maryland (1649) and Pennsylvania. If a question says “toleration,” check which colony before answering.

Both were Calvinists, but the Pilgrims (Plymouth, 1620) were Separatists who abandoned the Church of England, while the Puritans (Massachusetts Bay, 1630) meant to purify it from within. Separate colonies, separate leaders, ten years apart.

It is a model of many overlapping circuits: the classic Europe-Africa-Americas triangle, the New England molasses-rum-slaves loop, and plenty of direct two-way routes. Use the model to organize the flows, but remember the exam may show any leg. The constant is the Middle Passage: the leg that carried people.

Slavery was legal in all thirteen colonies in this period. It was concentrated in the South (tobacco, rice, indigo), but New York City had one of the largest enslaved populations in the colonies, and New England merchants profited from the trade itself.

It was mostly freed and current indentured servants plus frontier farmers (some enslaved men joined late) revolting against Berkeley’s elite government and its native policy. Its connection to slavery is as a cause: it frightened planters into replacing servants with enslaved Africans.

Opposite methods, overlapping effect. The Awakening was emotional religion (Edwards, Whitefield); the Enlightenment was rational philosophy (Locke, Franklin). Both taught colonists to question established authority, which is why they share a class statement, and an exam question.

Cheat sheet

The whole unit on one rail, two tables, and one recall drill. Print-brain material.

Dates that decide questions

Year	Event	One-line significance
1607	Jamestown	First permanent English colony; joint-stock, profit-driven
1619	Burgesses + first Africans	Self-government and slavery arrive together
1620	Mayflower Compact	Government by consent, signed at sea
1630	Massachusetts Bay	Winthrop’s city upon a hill; Great Migration
1636-39	RI, CT, Harvard	Dissenters’ colonies; first written constitution
1649	Act of Toleration	Maryland protects (Christian) worship
1651-73	Navigation Acts	Mercantilism becomes law; smuggling becomes lifestyle
1664	New Amsterdam falls	Dutch colony becomes New York
1675-76	King Philip’s War	Native power in New England broken
1676	Bacon’s Rebellion	Class revolt; pivot from servants to slavery
1681	Pennsylvania	Penn’s tolerant, diverse Holy Experiment
1733	Georgia + Molasses Act	Last colony; most-smuggled tax in America
1735	Zenger verdict	Truth defeats libel; free press takes root
1739	Stono Rebellion	Largest slave uprising; harsher codes follow
1730s-40s	Great Awakening	Edwards + Whitefield; authority challenged, colonies united
1754	French and Indian War	Period ends; Unit 3 begins

The three-region comparison

	New England	Middle	Southern
Society	Puritan family towns	Most diverse, tolerant	Planter elite over enslaved majority-labor
Politics	Town meetings, assemblies	Proprietary + elected assemblies	Planter-controlled government
Religion	Puritan (Congregational)	Pluralist (Quakers +)	Anglican, honor culture
Economy	Farms, fish, ships, trade	Breadbasket wheat + trade	Tobacco, rice, indigo
Settlement	Compact towns	Cities (Philadelphia, NY)	Scattered plantations
Geography	Rocky, cold, harbors	Fertile, mild, rivers	Warm, fertile coastal plains

Cold-recall drill

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